13th April 2015

A literature review for a new cross-sector model for effective responses to domestic violence and abuse

To download a PDF version of this literature review go to the DVCN Resources section and it will be under VAWG Issues.

Problems with the current model and approaches

For the past decade, there has been an increasing adoption of a risk-based model for service responses to domestic violence and abuse (CAADA, 2013).  However, there is also a growing literature highlighting the limits to such an approach (for example, Debbonaire, 2011; Hester, 2012), and recognition of problems in service responses.  The recent HMIC investigation into police responses to domestic violence and abuse (HMIC, 2014) has provided evidence of problems in the criminal justice system response, and there are also indications that the current response is not reducing the rate of domestic violence (Walby et al., 2014).  A focus on risk has been accompanied by a reduction in needs-led responses, and a growing crisis of unmet need (Taylor, 2013).  In addition, some service responses have been criticised for marginalising and disempowering survivors themselves (Against Violence and Abuse, 2010; Wilson, 2013; Kelly et al., 2014).  A controlling and undermining response from a service replicates the way in which the abuser has depleted a woman’s own resources, and many studies emphasise how women need to remain in control of the decision-making process (Smith, 2003; Paterson, 2009), rather than having no idea, for example, about their ‘case’ going to the MARAC (Coy and Kelly, 2011).  

Rather than seeing the response to domestic violence as being solely the response by services, a new model is needed to emphasise that anything done by services is within a wider context, including social and community support (Humphreys and Joseph, 2004; Wilcox, 2006; Klein, 2012).  Women’s own responses started long before any service was involved, and will continue long after (Kirkwood, 1993; Davis, 2002; Abrahams, 2010); therefore a more effective service response needs to understand women’s own strategies and enable what is positive within those.  Legal and policy responses have tended to define domestic violence as discrete assaults and threats – an incident-based approach – and to focus on short-term service goals of ending the violence, which is often assumed to be via the woman leaving the relationship (Goodman et al., 2005), rather than by the perpetrator changing his behaviour. However, a recognition of the wider context of coercive control (Stark, 2007) within an abusive relationship would not only inform immediate responses, but also emphasise the potential for damaging effects long after an abusive relationship has ended.  Short-term incident focused responses do not deal with longer term issues of recovery, nor with ongoing contexts of control and abuse, such as over child contact (Coy et al., 2012).

Policy context for current responses

The current model and approaches work within a specific policy and service context for responding to domestic violence and abuse, which includes the national action plan on violence against women and girls (HM Government, 2014).  However, there is also an increasing recognition of the impact of domestic violence and abuse within a wider range of social issues, and addressed by a range of policy and service responses across areas such as health (for example, NICE, 2014), housing (for example, Hutchinson et al., 2014), finances (for example, Citizens Advice, 2014) and children (for example, NSPCC, 2013; Katz, 2014; Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2014).  A more effective response to domestic violence and abuse, including earlier and more appropriate intervention to disclosure, would therefore have a positive impact across social policy and services.  In addition to responses, there needs to be more effective ways of preventing domestic violence and abuse and protecting children and families from its long-term effects(Guy et al., 2014).

A focus on domestic violence has been announced by the Government in the expanded Troubled Families Programme (DCLG, 2014a), with an expectation that this will increase the proportion of families eligible for the programme.  Within this programme there is also recognition that “one problem may be a manifestation of another” (DCLG, 2014b: 13), with there being a greater likelihood of a truanting child or a young offender, and of child or adult mental health problems, where domestic violence was identified in the family.  Domestic violence responses therefore cannot be isolated from other social policy areas, and the need for coordinated and cohesive approaches to domestic violence is consistently emphasised in strategic and policy responses.  This includes agencies working across rather than simply within their boundaries (Home Office, 2013), and avoiding the tendency of operating as if they are on different planets (Hester, 2011).  Such coordination is identified as delivering both the best outcomes for women and children (Cerise, 2011; Coy and Kelly, 2011) and for tackling perpetrators more effectively (Hester et al., 2006).

Opportunities for more effective responses

Even this brief summary of the academic and policy literature highlights the opportunities for more effective responses that this new model intends to achieve.  Despite gender inequality across the life course (McNeish and Scott, 2014), women experiencing violence and abuse are facing barriers and limitations which can be reduced and removed by the actions of services, allowing women to mobilise their resources more fully.  As a result, women can be enabled to recover from abuse and establish autonomy for themselves and their children (Dobash and Dobash, 1992) in such a way as to build resilience and reduce future dependency (Anderson et al., 2012; Guy et al., 2014).  Whilst safety and protection is necessary, it is not sufficient for women and children to build longer-term resilience, and be able to contribute to society (Davis, 2002; Ponic et al., 2011).  At a point of crisis, violence and danger, women and children need emergency assistance from a range of agencies, but that does not mean that a longer-term dependency is necessary.  In an early discussion of coercive control, Davies et al (1998) discuss the contradiction between recognising that women have often had very limited freedom to make decisions in an abusive relationship, and the fact that service responses are built on the premise that woman can make major decisions as soon as they contact a service.  They highlight the vital role of women-defined advocacy to enable a woman to rebuild her capacity – her resources – for decision-making; and this can be contrasted with a service approach that takes decisions away from her at a time when she is least able to resist.  A new model with survivors at its heart would enable service responses which are about more than saving lives – they must be about enabling autonomous lives well worth living; as defined from women’s and children’s own diverse perspectives.

References

Abrahams H (2010) Rebuilding Lives After Domestic Violence: Understanding Long-Term Outcomes. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Ltd.

Against Violence and Abuse (2010) And Still, Like Dust, We Rise: London survivors of domestic and sexual violence. London: AVA Project,  Available from: http://www.avaproject.org.uk/media/96159/london%20survivors%20speak%20out.pdf (accessed 15 February 2015).

Anderson KM, Renner LM and Danis FS (2012) Recovery: Resilience and Growth in the Aftermath of Domestic Violence. Violence Against Women, 18(11), 1279–1299.

CAADA (2013) Care Pathway for Risk Based Service Provision. Bristol: Co-ordinated Action Against Domestic Abuse (CAADA),  Available from: http://www.caada.org.uk/commissioners/Care%20Pathway%20for%20Risk%20Based%20Service%20Provision.pdf (accessed 20 January 2015).

Cerise S (2011) A Different World is Possible: Ending Violence Against Women. London: End Violence Against Women Coalition,  Available from: http://www.endviolenceagainstwomen.org.uk/resources/19/a-different-world-is-possible-ending-violence-against-women-2011 (accessed 15 February 2015).

Citizens Advice (2014) Controlling money, controlling lives: Financial abuse in Britain. Citizens Advice,  Available from: www.citizensadvice.org.uk (accessed 20 January 2015).

Coy M and Kelly L (2011) Islands in the stream: An evaluation of four London independent domestic violence advocacy schemes. London: Trust for London, The Henry Smith Charity, London Metropolitan University,  Available from: www.trustforlondon.org.uk (accessed 30 January 2011).

Coy M, Perks K, Scott E, et al. (2012) Picking up the pieces: Domestic violence and child contact. London: Rights of Women and CWASU,  Available from: www.rightsofwomen.org.uk (accessed 17 November 2012).

Davies J, Lyon E and Monti-Catania D (1998) Safety Planning with Battered Women: Complex Lives/Difficult Choices. London: Sage.

Davis RE (2002) ‘The Strongest Women’: Exploration of the Inner Resources of Abused Women. Qualitative Health Research, 12(9), 1248–1263.

DCLG (2014a) Estimating the number of families eligible for the expanded Troubled Families Programme. London: Department for Communities and Local Government,  Available from: www.gov.uk/dclg (accessed 20 January 2015).

DCLG (2014b) Understanding Troubled Families. London: Department for Communities and Local Government,  Available from: www.gov.uk/dclg (accessed 20 January 2015).

Debbonaire T (2011) Research: Evidence Base on assessing risk in domestic violence cases. Community Care,  Available from: http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/30/09/2011/117535/research-assessing-risk-in-domestic-violence-cases.htm.

Dobash RE and Dobash R (1992) Women, violence and social change. London: Routledge.

Goodman L, Dutton MA, Vankos N, et al. (2005) Women’s Resources and Use of Strategies as Risk and Protective Factors for Reabuse Over Time. Violence Against Women, 11(3), 311–336.

Guy J, Feinstein L and Griffiths A (2014) Early Intervention in Domestic Violence and Abuse. London: Early Intervention Foundation,  Available from: http://www.eif.org.uk/publications/early-intervention-in-domestic-violence-and-abuse-full-report/ (accessed 16 January 2015).

Hester M (2011) The Three Planet Model: Towards an Understanding of Contradictions in Approaches to Women and Children’s Safety in Contexts of Domestic Violence. British Journal of Social Work, 41, 837–853.

Hester M (2012) Domestic violence advocacy and support in a changing climate: findings from three recent  evaluations. Safe, (40).

Hester M, Westmarland N, Gangoli G, et al. (2006) Domestic Violence Perpetrators: Identifying Needs to Inform Early Intervention. Bristol: University of Bristol in association with the Northern Rock Foundation and the Home Office.

HM Government (2014) A Call to End Violence against Women and Girls: Action Plan 2014. London: HM Government,  Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/ending-violence-against-women-and-girls-action-plans (accessed 24 April 2014).

HMIC (2014) Everyone’s business: Improving the police response to domestic abuse. London: HM Inspection of Constabulary,  Available from: http://www.hmic.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/improving-the-police-response-to-domestic-abuse.pdf (accessed 31 March 2014).

Home Office (2013) Domestic Homicide Reviews: Common Themes Identified as Lessons to be Learned. London: Home Office.

Humphreys C and Joseph S (2004) Domestic violence and the politics of trauma. Women’s Studies International Forum, 27(5-6), 559–570.

Hutchinson S, Page A and Sample E (2014) Rebuilding Shattered Lives: The final report – getting the right help at the right time to women who are homeless or at risk. London: St Mungo’s,  Available from: http://www.mungosbroadway.org.uk/homelessness/publications/latest_publications_and_research/1822_rebuilding-shattered-lives-the-final-report (accessed 16 January 2015).

Katz E (2014) Strengthening mother-child relationships as part of domestic violence recovery. Edinburgh: Centre for Research on Families and Relationships,  Available from: www.crfr.ac.uk (accessed 20 January 2015).

Kelly L, Sharp N and Klein R (2014) Finding the Costs of Freedom: How women and children rebuild their lives after domestic violence. London: CWASU and Solace Women’s Aid,  Available from: http://www.cwasu.org/publication_display.asp?type=1&pageid=PAPERS&pagekey=44 (accessed 3 June 2014).

Kirkwood C (1993) Leaving Abusive Partners: From the Scars of Survival to the Wisdom for Change. London: SAGE.

Klein R (2012) Responding to Intimate Violence Against Women: The Role of Informal Networks. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

McNeish D and Scott S (2014) Women and girls at risk: Evidence across the life course. London: Lankelly Chase,  Available from: http://www.lankellychase.org.uk/assets/0000/2675/Women___Girls_at_Risk_-_Evidence_Review_040814.pdf (accessed 23 January 2015).

NICE (2014) Domestic violence and abuse: how health services, social care and the organisations they work with can respond effectively.  Available from: http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph50 (accessed 20 January 2015).

NSPCC (2013) Domestic abuse: learning from case reviews Summary of risk factors and learning for improved practice around families and domestic abuse. London: NSPCC,  Available from: http://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/child-protection-system/case-reviews/learning/domestic-abuse (accessed 16 February 2015).

Paterson S (2009) (Re)Constructing women’s resistance to woman abuse: Resources, strategy choice and implications of and for public policy in Canada. Critical Social Policy, 29, 121–145.

Ponic P, Varcoe C, Davies L, et al. (2011) Leaving ≠ Moving: Housing Patterns of Women Who Have Left an Abusive Partner. Violence Against Women, 17(12), 1576–1600.

Royal College of Psychiatrists (2014) Domestic violence and abuse - its effects on children: the impact on children and adolescents: information for parents, carers and anyone who works with young people. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists,  Available from: www.rcpsych.ac.uk.

Smith ME (2003) Recovery from Intimate Partner Violence: A Difficult Journey. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24(5), 543–573.

Stark E (2007) Coercive Control: How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Taylor K (2013) A Growing Crisis of Unmet Need: What the figures alone don’t show you. Bristol: Women’s Aid,  Available from: www.womensaid.org.uk (accessed 21 November 2013).

Walby S, Towers J and Francis B (2014) The decline in the rate of domestic violence has stopped: Removing the cap on repeat victimisation reveals more violence. Violence and Society, Lancaster: Lancaster University.

Wilcox P (2006) Communities, care and domestic violence. Critical Social Policy, 26(4), 722 –747.

Wilson A (2013) Racism, surveillance, and managing gender violence in the UK. Open Democracy,  Available from: https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/amrit-wilson/racism-surveillance-and-managing-gender-violence-in-uk (accessed 16 February 2015).